TABLE OF CONTENTS

Item

Page

DECLARATION                                                                                                      i

TABLE OF CONTENTS                                                                                         ii

LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………  ….v

LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………   ……… vi

LIST OF APPENDICES……………………………………………… …………xi

ACKNOWLEGMENTS…………………………………………………  ………x

ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………… ……..xii

  1. INTRODUCTION……………………………………………  ………… 1
    1. Pollution and contamination: Definition…………………………     …. 1
    2. Statement of the problem…………………………………… ……… 3
    3. Rationale …………………………………………………………… 4
    4. Objectives ……………………………………………………  …….6
    5. Hypothesis …………………………………………………  ………6
    6. Limitations of the study……………………………………………….7
  2. LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………………………8

2.1 Water quality and water resource degradation ……………………  …... 8

2.2 Bacteriological pollution and health implications ……………………          …. 10

2.3 Heavy metal pollution and its impact on biodiverisity and human

population ……………………………………………………………           ….. 16

    1. Hydrocarbon pollution …………………………………………………… 18
    2. Economic implication of Lake Tanganyika degradation……….. ……… 19

3.0 DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA …………………………………21

    1. General introduction …………………………………………………… 21
    2. Location …………………………………………………………………...21
    3. Identity of Lake Tanganyika …………………………………………… ...21
    4. Annual limnological events of Lake Tanganyika ………………………... 23
    5. Bathymetry and drainage patterns………………………………………... 26
    6. Geomorphology of south Lake Tanganyika trough………………………..27
    7. Soils and vegetation ……………………………………………………... 28
    8. Land use………………………………………………………………….. .31

4.0 METHODOLOGY ………………………………………………………. 34

    1. Types and sources of data ……………………………………………… 34
    2. Primary data collection ………………………………………………… 34
      1. Water sample collection ………………………………………… 34
      2. Sediment Sample Collection ……………………………………….. 39
      3. Structured Interviews……………………………………………….. 41
    3. Secondary Data Collection………………………………………………… 41
      1. Archival Data …………………………………………………………41
    4. Analytical methods ………………………………………………………… 44

4.4.1 Water Sample …… ……………………………………… 44
      1. Lake Sediment Analysis for Hydrocarbons ………………………… 44
      2. Grain Size Analysis ………………………………………………… 45
      3. Sediment Analysis for Heavy Metals………………………………… 46
    1. Limitations of Study ………………………………………………………47
      1. Sediment Sampling …………………………………………………… 47
      2. Certainty about other sources of hydrocarbons ……………………… 47
      3. Water Sample Handling and Transportation ………………………… 47
      4. Heavy Metal Analysis………………………………………………… 48

5.0 ANALYSIS AND RESULTS …………………………………………………… 49

5.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………… 49

5.2 Factors influencing pollution on Lake Tanganyika…………………………… 49

5.2.1 Physical factors contributing to pollution on Lake Tanganyika………. 49

5.2.1.1 Temperature……….……………………………………………………49

5.2.1.2 Physical features…………………………………………………... …..50

5.2.1.3 Interview responses…………………………………………………… 50

5.2.2 Anthropogenic factors contributing to pollution on Lake Tanganyika …..50

5.2.2.1 Settlement patterns …………………………………………………. 50

5.2.2.2 People’s views on settlements………………………………………….51

5.2.2.3 Waste management …………………………………………….…... 53

5.2.2.3.1 Disposal of waste in Mpulungu Township and surrounding ……… 53

5.2.2.3.2 Fish processing waste disposal site ………………………………… 53

5.3 Sources of water supply …………………………………………………… 54

5.4 Status of water in Mpulungu ……………………………………………………55

5.4.1 People’s views and attitude towards water on Lake Tanganyika……… 55

5.4.2 Total and faecal coliform pollution …………………………………… 58

5.4.3 Distribution of coliform bacteria in Mpulungu Sampling Stations… 58

5.4.4 Seasonal concentration of coliforms and disease out breaks …… 60

5.4.5 Distribution of coliform bacteria in relation to distance from the shore and depth……………………………………………………………………… 62
      1. Relationship in distribution between total and faecal coliform on Lake Tanganyika………………………………………………………………64

5.5 Tap water quality analysis………………………………………………… 66

      1. People’s behavior toward water treatment in general ………………… 66
      2. Comparison of results for water sample without and without sodium thiosulphate…………………………………………………………… 66

5.5.2.1 Significant test for coliform using correlation analysis……………….67 5.5.2.2 Significant test for coliform using ANOVA- the F-test ……………...67
    1. Physical Water Quality……………………………………………………. 70
    2. Hydrocarbon contamination of Lake Tanganyika…………………………….72
      1. Sources of oil pollution on Lake Tanganyika……………………………72
      2. Disposal of used petroleum by fishing companies in Mpulungu………...76
      3. Distribution of hydrocarbons in surface sediments…………………… 77
      4. Analysis of hydrocarbon distribution by to depth and percentage of fine grains in sediments……………………………………………………….81

5.8 Heavy metal pollution on Lake Tanganyika………………………………...83

5.8.1 Heavy metals in surface sediments…………………………………….….87

5.8.2 Sources of Heavy Metal pollution………………………………………... 88
        1. People’s views of possible sources of heavy metal pollution……….88
        2. Painting of boats by fish companies ………………………………...92

5.9 Importance of Lake Tanganyika and conservation measures…………………..90

5.9.1 importance of Lake Tanganyika………………………………………… 90

5.9.2 Government measures to conserve Lake Tanganyika……………………91

  1. DISCUSSION AND INTERPRETATION……………………………………….92

6.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………… ……..92

    1. Bacteriological pollution in Mpulungu………………………………………… 93
      1. Coliform level variations in Mpulungu area…..……………………… 93
      2. Total coliform versus faecal coliform………………………………… 94
      3. Coliform bacteria in tap water ………………………………………… 95
      4. Suitability of water for domestic and recreational purposes……………97
    2. Effect of physical factors of water on bacteriological pollution………………. 97
    3. Oil pollution in Musende Bay………………………………………………. 99
    4. Status of heavy metal pollution on Lake Tanganyika…………………………103
      1. Lead pollution…………………………………………………………103
      2. Possible sources of lead in Mpulungu……………………………… .104
      3. Lead in Chituta Bay…………………………………………………...105
      4. General views…………………………………………………………106
      5. Hypothesis testing…………………………………………………… 108
        1. Hypothesis one……………………………………………………… 109
        2. Hypothesis two……………………………………………………… 110
        3. Hypothesis three………………………………………………………111

 

  1. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ……………..112
    1. Summary………………………………………………………………… 112
    2. Conclusion…………………………………………………………………113
    3. Recommendations ……………………………………………………… 114
  2. References ……………………………………………………………………….. 116
  3. Appendices……………………………………………………………………… 124

 

 

 

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Summary of the main annual limnological events on Lake Tanganyika………26

Table 2. Method of waste disposal by community and council in Mpulungu…………. 53

Table 3. Water sources for Mpulungu households…………………………………… 54

Table 4. Suitability of water for drinking in Mpulungu……………………………….. 54

Table 5. Correlation analysis between total coliform and faecal coliform in Mpulungu. …………………………………………………………………………………61

Table 6. Mean coliform colonies for Mbete Bay Station……………………………….63

Table 7. Reasons for boiling/not boiling drinking water in Mpulungu…………………63

Table 8. Statistical relationship between water with and without sodium thiosulphate..64

Table 9. Relationship between bacteria, DO, pH and Temperature in sampling stations…………………………………………………………………………68

Table 10. Sources of oil pollution on Lake Tanganyika in Mpulungu………………….79

Table 11. How used oil is disposed of by companies in Mpulungu…………………….81

Table 12. Correlation matrix for oil analysis parameters on Lake Tanganyika in Mpulungu………………………………………………………………………86

 

 

 

 

 

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Location of Mpulungu area, water and sediment sampling points on south Lake Tanganyika basin…………………………………………………………….22

Figure 2. Limnological cycle of Lake Tanganyika. 1999……………………………..25

Figure 3. Bathymetry and discharge map of Lake Tanganyika……………………….26

Figure 4. Relief of south Lake Tanganyika basin, Zambia……………………………28

Figure 5. Physical characteristics of Mpulungu area surrounding Lake Tanganyika, September 1999- March 2000……………………………………………….29

Figure 6. Slash and burn cultivation (Chitemene) system around Lake Tanganyika in Mpulungu. September 1999…………………………………………………31

Figure 7. Location of sewage discharge point on Lake Tanganyika in Mpulungu. September 1999 – March 2000………………………………………………35

Figure 8 Location of Mpulungu Township water intake .September 1999- March 2000…………………………………………………………………………..36

Figure 9. Sketch map of how sampling points were located at each sampling station………………………………………………………………………..37

Figure 10. Sediment sampling using a grab on Lake Tanganyika, Kigoma (Typical sampling at the depth of 10 m………………………………………………39

Figure 11. Settlement patterns in Mpulungu village (Posa) September 1999- March 2000…………………………………………………………………………51

 

LIST OF APPENDICES

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix I. Annual cargo analysis data (Tonnes) Mpulungu Harbour Corporation LTD……………………………………………………………………. 123

Appendix IIa. Vessel calls for the period of January to December 1999 at Mpulngu Harbour Corporation LTD……………………………………... 128

Appendix IIb. Trucking from January to December 1999……………………..

Appendix III. Diseases which commonly cause deaths in Mpulungu District…Morbidity and mortality – Waterborne diseases in Mpulungu District. 1998 – 1999……………………………………………………… 130

Appendix IV. Morbidity and mortality – Waterborne diseases in Mpulungu District. 1998 – 1999……………………………………………………… 132

Appendix V. Map of Mpulungu Township…………………………………..

Appendix VIa. Questionnaire for fishing companies on pollution on Lake Tanganyika in Mpulungu…………………………………………………………133

Appendix VIb. Questionnaire on attitude of people toward water pollution on Lake Tanganyika in Mpulungu…………………………………………138

Appendix VII Other common diseases in Mplulungu………………………………142

Appendix VIII. Recorded chorela cases in 1999 –2000…………………………… 143

Appendix VIII. Water levels of Lake Tanganyika in Mpulungu from October 1998 – September 1999………………………………………………... 144

Appendix IX. Sediment analysis results for oil and Heavy metals in Mpulungu form September 1999 – March 2000……………………137.

Appendix X. Water analysis results for coliform, DO, pH and temperature in Mpulungu from September 1999 – March 2000.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Many thanks go to the Sisters of the Child Jesus, who had to put up with my absence both in community and apostolate and for their support during my time of study.

My deep felt gratefulness goes to my conscientious and diligent Supervisor, Dr. Henry Sichingabula, School of Natural Sciences University of Zambia, without whose advice, guidance and encouragement, this document would not have become a reality. I also thank Dr. W.D.Nkhuwa of the School of Mines my Co- Supervisor, for encouragement and advice. I also thank members of the Geography Department at the University of Zambia for the academic support.

Appreciation also goes to my family mum, dad, brothers and sisters whose encouragement and support made things look easy. Special thanks go to Ernest my late young brother who was always eager to hear and chat about all my pursuits and aspirations and whose last words to me were about reaching ‘higher heights’. May his soul rest in the Peace of Christ.

Many thanks to members of staff, Mpulungu Fisheries Department, and Lake Tanganyika Biodiversity project, Messrs. Leonard Mwape, Clement Mwelwa and Olivier Drieu and the entire crew who made it possible for me do water and sediment sampling on Lake Tanganyika by providing me with boats, equipment and technical assistance. Last but not the least, I would like to express my gratitude to World Wide Fund For Nature of Switzerland whose financial assistance made it possible for me to do this very expensive research.

 

 

DEDICATION

This Masters dissertation is dedicated to the One who holds ‘Masters’ in all that is. The greatest Scientist surpassed by no one on the surface of the earth, the Man-God, my Master, Saviour and Lord, Jesus Christ the Nazarene. Only the good that He wills becomes possible.

 

ABSTRACT

This study investigated bacteriological, hydrocarbons and heavy metal pollution status on Lake Tanganyika in Mpulungu area in the period of October 1999 to March 2000. The purpose of this study was to identify the origin and sources of bacteriological, hydrocarbon and heavy metal pollution on the lake. The objectives were to (i) identify the sources and causes of bacteriological, oil and heavy metal pollution; (ii) determine the magnitude of bacteriological, oil and heavy metal pollution in the lake water; and (iii) assess the epidemiological pattern of water-borne diseases in Mpulungu area.

The responses from interviews of the people generally reveal that there are waste materials being introduced on the lake by local people as well as fishing companies. Since many people depend on the lake water for domestic use, chances are that there is relationship between the quality of water and the spread of water related diseases in the area.

In order to determine the status of the water in Mpulungu in terms of bacteriological pollution, samples of lake and river water were analysed for coliform bacteria because this type of bacteria is used as an indicator organism for bacteriological pollution. To determine the amount of oil and heavy metals in the lake water, sediments were analysed using acetone/chloroform and Flame Atomic Absorption respectively.

Analysis of data revealed that none of the five sampling stations, on the lake, namely, Mbete Bay, Musende Bay, Ngwenya/Harbour, and Lunzua River road bridge and one township tap, had coliform bacteria below the WHO Permissible Standard for Drinking Water of 0 colonies/100 mls.

Musende Bay where all fishing companies and the harbour are situated, recorded the highest percentage of oil/g in sediments of 0.4 %/g, which was above zero Maximum Permissible levels of oil for WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water. During the study, it was found that there was a strong relationship between the percentage of oil in sediment and the percentage of fine grains in sediments.

The study found that there were minute or close to zero concentrations of copper and aluminum in Mpulungu Bays. Chituta Bay was found to contain lead at the level of (0.04mg/l) above the Maximum Permissible levels according to WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water of 0.01mg/l.

It is concluded that though at slow rate and in small concentrations, Lake Tanganyika is actually receiving substances, which might degrade and destroy the lake permanently. Lake Tanganyika being in a rift valley and located in the tropics, has very high temperatures throughout the year. These high temperatures favour the growth of some dangerous pathogens and also favours the decomposition of material.

It is recommended that Mpulungu Township Council should improve the water purification system, and set up good wastewater and solid waste control strategies. Finally there is need for more research on lead pollution, the relationship between water-borne diseases and coliform bacteria in the water and the assessment of the effect of pollution on biodiversity in the area.